Comprehensive Classroom Behavior Management Plan Essay

The classroom is a dynamic environment wherein nothing is constant except change and the need to continually adapt. This environment affects both students and teachers; students are developing physically, cognitively, and emotionally. Teachers must respond to these changes in the students by adapting the environment, curriculum, instructional style and methods, and classroom management techniques. The process of education and classroom management is therefore one of continual change and reevaluation. The effectively managed classroom is one where a process of planning in several key areas begins before the school year starts. By implementing the management plan developed prior to the start of school and by maintaining the management procedures throughout the year, teachers are more likely to be effective and students react positively to the environment (Everston, Emmer, and Worsham, 2006). Elementary classrooms can become better learning environments when teachers have rules, classro om management skills, and a belief that each child can be successful. Rules help create a predictable atmosphere that limit classroom disruptions and encourage children to use self-control. Children need to be taught that it is their responsibility to make appropriate choices and that they will be held accountable for their actions. Teachers may decide to establish rules or allow their students to assist in formulating them. Teachers who involve their children in the rule making process contend that students are more likely to follow them. One way to involve students in forming rules is to have them brainstorm as a class or in small groups why they come to school and their goals for learning. Then ask them to name rules that will help  them achieve their goals. Write their ideas on the board. If a child states a rule negatively, such as, â€Å"Don’t come to school late,† ask how it could be stated in a positive way. The goal is to assist student in becoming thinking, caring, contributing members of society by providing guidance in developing a moral position, values, and ethics consistent with maintaining a viable society, and by helping students to develop the higher cognitive processes of critical thought, problem-solving, and decision-making. In order to do this the teacher will need to create a safe, caring classroom environment of mutual respect and trust where students are provided the opportunity to create, explore, openly participate, and collaborate on meaningful work, and communicate anything without fear of recrimination of any sort, or being ostracized. This is a fifth grade classroom, with twenty students. It is a very variable classroom in cultural diversity issues. The majority are children that come from Latin families, four children are African American. Looking to the Miami educational environment, this classroom is in the average, because most of the schools in this area share the same characteristics. Classroom Procedures, Rules and Routines Procedures are formalized instructions that support the rules or Classroom Constitution. They represent the expectations and norms of classroom operation and must be taught and practiced. Key classroom procedures can be introduced during first days of class, expanded on and reinforced as the year proceeds. There are five general areas in which students need to be taught to act and that should be supported by procedures; these are: Students’ use of classroom space and facilities. Students’ behavior in areas outside the classroom, such as the bathroom, lunchroom, drinking fountain, and playgrounds. Procedures to follow during whole-class activities, such as whether to raise a hand to speak, where to turn in work, and how to get help during seatwork, Procedures during small-group work. Additional procedures, such as how to behave at the beginning and end of the school-day, and when a visitor arrives.  General classroom procedures include how to walk into the classroom and  what to do then, how to ask for help, how to participate in class discussions, how to make transitions between activities and classes, sharpen pencils, ask for a restroom break or nurse pass, work independently and with others, get materials, address teachers and other adults, address students, walk in the hall, respond in an emergency or fire drill, listen to the teacher and follow directions, how to clean up one’s area, and end of the day routines. The three procedures this writer will focus on are walking into the classroom procedures, transitioning from one class to another, and end of the day routines. To teach walking into the classroom procedures, the writer will start on the first day of school. The teacher will talk about why it is important, list the steps on the board, model the steps, and then have students practice. Students will walk into the room quietly, keeping their hands to themselves. Sit down at their assigned seat at the big tables in the center of the room. (They often come in one at time.) They will raise their hand if they need to go their individual desk to get materials for the next class, of if they have a question. If no materials are needed, they will quietly get to work on an assignment they have with them. If the teacher or paraprofessional talks to them or gives instructions, the student will listen and follow directions. Transitioning from one class to another can be problematic. The goal is to teach students to be independent and responsible during these times. The teacher will start on the first day of school. Will discuss why this is important. List the steps on the board, model the steps, and have students practice them. This activity varies, de pending on the circumstance, so the steps of the procedure are more general than for some procedures. The Steps are: The teacher or paraprofessional says it is time to get ready to go to ___. Clean up area at the table. Gather needed materials from table or desk. Line up at the door in our classroom. Walk quietly toward class when the teacher or paraprofessional gives permission. The end of the day procedures will be taught starting on the first day of school also. We will discuss why this is important. The teacher will list the steps on the board, model the steps, and have students  practice them. The steps are: When the last class of the day is dismissed, walk into the room quietly with hands to yourself. Gather homework or other materials from desk and put things in backpack. Sit at assigned seat at big tables. You may talk quietly. When bell rings, walk to door and walk down the hall to exit. During the first month of school, the teacher will teach these procedures and assess whether students need more teaching and reinforcement in these areas, or not. The teacher will give verbal praise, tickets for the class auction, and points on individual point sheets when students follow procedures correctly. The points add up for daily prizes, or can be saved up for bigger prizes. They also add up toward social and activity rewards. If they don’t need much instruction in these areas, the teacher will focus on procedures that they need help with. Two month later, the teacher will work on reinforcing correct procedures, and start to reinforce accurate schoolwork, so that students see the link between procedures and success in school. Next month, the teacher will keep modeling and reinforcing correct procedures, and emphasize reinforcing successful academic activities. It is required that they understand that success ful social behavior will increase academic performance. During the winter months, the teacher will not continually reinforce correct procedures. Teacher will expect students to be learning how to manage themselves and follow procedures automatically. In December, The teacher will give reinforcement when students are more responsible for their own choices in following procedures. During January the writer will teach again procedures to make sure everyone knows them, and then reinforce independent behavior. In February teacher will review procedures once a week and reinforce correct procedures and independent behavior. Since many field trips occur in spring, during March and April the teacher will teach these routines as they relate to preparing for other settings or events. In May teacher will evaluate the performance of students during the year and review activities that students need practice on. The rules will be shared with the students on the first day of school too. I will use that time to allow my students to create their own classroom expectations, stemming off  of my general list. It is going to be used this time to explore the understanding of each expectation, as well as, to create a list of consequences in case an expectation is violated or disregarded. This method of using expectations and consequences is intended for the purpose of minimizing teacher-directed discipline and fostering student-driven motivation, choice, and discipline. The teacher will continue to convey order in the classroom, but will provide students with the skills and opportunities for maintaining self-classroom behavior management and discipline. (See appendix 4) Classroom Rules or Expectations Speak kindly to others Listen when the teacher is talking to you Follow adult instructions the first time given Keep area clean Keep hands and feet to yourself Do your own best work Classroom Organization Environment Since on the first day of school, the teacher will present a short five or seven minute lesson for each rule. Teacher will talk about the rule and get volunteers to demonstrate following the rule and not following it. Then demonstrate with examples and non-examples. Teacher will have the rules posted in the room and refer to them often during the year. Since rules are general, the teacher will talk about how they apply to different situations as the school year progresses. The timeline and reinforcement schedule for teaching rules is the same as for teaching procedures. The teacher will use this same timeline and emphasize how the procedures are specific actions that reflect the rules. Students are instructed to walk into the room and sit at their assigned seats at the big tables in the middle of the room. If they need materials at their individual desks along the wall, they raise their hands to get permission. Usually students enter one or two at a time, due to their varied schedules. Students each have a desk for their supplies, backpacks, etc. They only have what is needed for the time being on the tables in the middle of the room. This prevents them from getting their things in others’ way and arguing about stuff on the table. The room is not  large, but there is plenty of walking space around the tables and desks. Usually there are only one or two people moving at a time. The desk is in the corner where I can see everyone, and the paraprofessional desks are in the other corner where they can see everyone as well. The computer is in the corner by the teacher’s desk, where it is not vulnerable to students messing with it. A book shelf with curriculum materials is along the wall behind the desk. Students may get things from there with permission. The time out desks are behind a partition, and there is a round table there too. If a student is back there, an adult is at the table to supervise and record behavior. The white board is at the front of the room where it is easily seen by all. A table with supplies for students is located along the wall behind the big tables. They can get paper, art supplies, and classroom books to read from there, with permission. They need to raise their hand for permission to get up for any reason. If they need to sharpen a pencil, they just hold their pencil up in the air to get permission. A student computer table is located next to the supply table. At given times, one or two students may work on this for projects or for free time as a reward. Teacher tells the students that they have to act like the room is full of students, because it is needed to be in the same routine as a larger classroom. Students work individually with the teacher or the paraprofessional, or sometimes in groups of two. They stay at the big table and the teacher presents the lesson from up front, or we work at the tables with them. Sometimes we need to change chairs around to work in a group. (See appendix 5). Classroom Students Work Students are expected to participate in daily discussions and activities, complete assignments required or assigned by the teacher. Students will complete tests over selected material and information. Students will complete various classroom group projects as well as several smaller individual assignments. These smaller assignments are given throughout the year by the teacher, and are used to enhance the students’ content knowledge. Students will have various opportunities for gaining extra credit points. Communicating Assignments and Work Requirements Homework for the current day will be written on the homework  white-board before students arrive at school. Students are responsible for writing their homework assignments in their assignment books after putting away their coats, books, etc., during homeroom. Class assignments are written on the board at the beginning of each class. Students are responsible for getting out the required text and materials and opening books or workbooks to the correct page and being ready to start class. Pencil and white lined paper, journal or workbooks are the typical form and media. Paper headings must include the name of the student, date, subject, assignment name and/or page. Work missed by absent students will be taken home by a designated friend or picked up by parents. If work is not taken home or picked up on the day of the absence, a folder with a list of class work, homework, worksheets, and notes will be compiled for the student. Consequences may include points off, letter or call to pare nts, or reduction in grade. Monitoring Progress on and Completion of Assignments The teacher monitors projects, or longer assignments completed in class, as groups work together during specified times. Those longer-term assignments taken home are the students’ responsibility and the teacher will provide weekly reminders of due dates. Completion of assignments by students will be accomplished by daily homework checks for completion and submission of class work as required. Completed assignments are turned-in by the students by placing them in the teacher’s subject in-baskets. Student work will be maintained in student files. Work retained by the teacher will be in the form of the electronic grade book and behavior journal. Feedback is provided daily, by notation on individual assignments, in the form of grades, and periodic student-teacher conferences or chats. Students will be encouraged to reflect on their progress through the use of KWL charts, open-ended questions, and discussion/review. When students stop doing homework, first step is to ascerta in if there is a specific problem. If the problem is endemic, the teacher will review his or her lessons and/or assignments to determine if there is some shortcoming. Thereafter, for individuals, how to address the problem will vary and be dependent upon the specifics of the situation. Students will take home those materials required to complete homework  according to what has been written on the homework white-board for the day. Student work will be displayed on bulletin boards inside and outside of the room, on lines strung in front of the windows and along the back of the room, and from the ceiling when needed. Students will maintain their own files, by subject. Files will include study guides, quizzes, and tests. Periodic file checks will be completed to ensure students have maintained the requisite documentation. Students or parents with disputes regarding individual projects or tests will be referred to the rubric or test itself. Students or parents with disputes regarding overall grades will be provided a rep ort showing all grades for homework, class work, quizzes, tests, and projects. Gaining Classroom Attention Throughout the school day, the teacher may need to provide the students with important instructions. Some instructions may require the use of direct verbal communication, while others may simply require non-verbal visual communication. Below are a few strategies to use to manage students’ attention. When in need of gaining the entire class’ attention, I will use one of two methods: Clap or Raise. Clap: The teacher will state rather softly, If you hear my voice clap once. If you hear my voice clap twice. Raise: The teacher will simply raise the hand, signaling to the students I need their ears open and their mouths closed. During the training phase, teacher may need to verbally state, â€Å"When the hand goes up, the mouth goes shut†. To inform students a task or lesson is near to ending, teacher will flick the room lights twice while stating, â€Å"One or two more minutes with this activity. We will soon be moving on to our next lesson†. Students are expected to attend school each day. Students are expected to assume responsibility for ensuring their Attendance Stick is removed from the absent jar and placed in the Present jar. The classroom teacher will review the jars to ensure the proper sticks have been moved. If a student forgets to switch their stick the teacher will make a reference to that particular student, but it is the student’s responsibility to fix the mistake. Attendance will be sent to the Main Office. Throughout the day, the teacher will give students various worksheets and homework assignments. After each lesson, the students will place their homework into their designated mailbox, located at the back of the room. At the end of  the day, when the students are called to retrieve t heir homework, they will also remove their jackets, coats, book-bags, or lunchboxes from their cubbies and to return to their seat to quietly await dismissal via the intercom. Timeline and Reinforcement Schedule For each of the rules, the timeline and levels of reinforcement will be about the same. During the first month of school, teacher will teach these rules and assess whether students need more teaching and reinforcement in these areas, or not. Teacher will give verbal praise, tickets for the class auction, and points on individual point sheets when students follow rules correctly. The points add up for daily prizes, or can be saved up for bigger prizes. They also add up toward social and activity rewards. If they don’t need much instruction on certain rules, teacher will focus on others that they need help with. In October, teacher will work on reinforcing correct rules, and start to reinforce accurate schoolwork, so that students see the link between following rules and success in school. In November, teacher will keep modeling and reinforcing following the rules, and reinforce successful academic activities. The teacher wants them to understand that successful social behavior will increase academic performance. During the winter months, will not continually reinforce following the rules. The writer will expect students to be learning how to manage themselves and follow rules and procedures automatically. In December, teacher will give reinforcement when students are more responsible for their own choices in following rules and procedures. During January, this candidate teacher will teach again the rules and procedures to make sure everyone knows them, and then reinforce independent behavior. In February teacher will review rules and procedures once a week and reinforce correct procedures and independent behavior. Since many field trips occur in spring, during March and April I will teach these routines as they relate to preparing for other settings or events. In May I will evaluate the performance of students during the year and review activities that students need practice on. Deliverin g Instruction. (See appendix 1) Strategies for Instruction Identifying students’ learning styles is essential to providing quality  education. When developing a classroom curriculum, the teacher must get to know each student; learning the students’ interests, identifying the various learning styles, and recognizing or researching methods to enhance the learning environment as well as the content material. Providing students with knowledge should be our goal as educators, but it shouldn’t end there. We should strive to not only provide knowledge, but to acquire the materials and tools needed to teach our students and render those tools into our students’ hands. Allow our students to explore with manipulative objects and hands-on tools for learning. We need to also provide alternative educational experiences for our students. Due to the overwhelming variety of learning styles, developmental levels and external interests, our students must be equip to survive basic living situations. Providing alternative learning opportunities, such as trips to the local grocery store, will not only engage our students in something new, but we will be teaching our students the fundamental and basic skills to survive and succeed in life. While developing the classroom management plan, is acknowledged the need for engagement, proximity, structure, support, routine, expectations, consequences and motivation, while incorporating the importance of parental involvement, trust, honesty and a bond of student-parent-teacher respect. It is the goal that by the end of the year students will assume the responsibility needed for their actions; replacing a destructive action with a constructive action as a natural consequence. (See appendix 2) Positive Reinforcement and Consequences Positive reinforcements of appropriate behavior are the preference and used before applying other consequences or punishment. These positive reinforcements of appropriate behavior are in the form of verbal praise, using other students as models of appropriate behavior, non-verbal signals, and rewards. Positive influence techniques are proactive measures that help students maintain or remind them of appropriate behavior. Three methods of positive influence include: supporting student self-control wherein the teacher helps students stay on-task, pay attention and complete their work, offering situational assistance is where the teacher provides immediate help when students are stuck on work assignments, or a break when students become overly tired, and appraising reality is where teachers point out the  underlying causes of students’ behavior, in a friendly way remind them of their obligations, and request continued cooperation. Another proactive measure is positive repetition. Positive consequences are also in the form of facial expressions, positive words or praise, recognition and rewards that are offered when students comply with expectations and classroom rules. Recognition includes public praise, verbal or as in awarding a certificate to an individual or class, sending positive notes home with the student, or phoning the student’s home with positive comments about the student for the parents Effective praise is personal. The student’s name is mentioned along â€Å"with the desired behavior: â€Å"Jack, thank you for working quietly back there.† Effective praise is genuine. It must be related to the situation and behavior, â€Å"and the teacher’s demeanor should show that it is sincere. Effective praise is descriptive and specific. It lets students know when and â€Å"why they are behaving appropriately: â€Å"Good, Susan. You went right to work on your essay.† Effe ctive praise is age appropriate. Young children like to be praised publicly. Older students like praise but usually prefer to receive it privately. Rewards or incentives are another positive reinforcement of appropriate behavior. These can take many forms and all be presented to the students as treasures, both tangible and intangible, to choose from. A fairly comprehensive list, compiled by Sue Watson (n.d.), follows: Become a helper to the custodian, librarian, another teacher or the office staff. Become a class monitor for a specific area of need e.g., hall monitor, room check monitor, tidy monitor etc. Helping a younger student with a learning task for a specified period of time. Earn points for a class video. 15 minutes of free choice activity. Work with a friend. Wear your ball cap or favorite hat for a work period. Read a comic book. Show or tell the class something you have or did. Have lunch with your favorite person or the teacher. Read a story to the principal or to another class. Hand out supplies for a defined number of activities. Free time in another classroom. Receive a positive note for home. Pick something from the prize box. Pick something from the treat box. (Keep it healthy, crackers, animal cookies, fruit, juice boxes, popcorn, granola bars, etc.) Earn tickets toward free time. Free pencil, pen or eraser. Positive phone message or email home. Free poster. Free story for the whole class! (A strategy like this lets others  help the student at risk stay on target. Earn a cooking day for the class. Take the bubble blower out a recess. Free homework passes. Leader for the day. An additional gym period with another class. Listen to the radio or CD with a headset for a specified period of time. Have work posted in the hall or near the office. Enjoy a game with a friend or in another class. Be the leader for the first gym activity. If nothing on this list interests the child, ask what type of incentive he/she believes would help him/her to obtain their behavior goals and help keep them on track. Consequences Consequences are the actions taken by the teacher when students do not comply with the school rules or Classroom Constitution that governs appropriate behavior. There are four types of consequences. These are: logical, conventional, generic, and instructional. Logical consequences are those that this teacher attempts to employ first before more negative or punitive ones. Logical consequences are logically related to the inappropriate behavior and the students are tasked with completing a corrective action for the rule or article they are not in compliance with. For example, if a student does not keep their area or desk neat and clean, they are tasked with cleaning or if the student is discourteous to the teacher, they may be required to take time, reflect on their action and practice ways of being courteous (University of Phoenix (Ed.), 2002, p. 212). Conventional consequences are consequences we see most frequently used and include time-outs, removal from the group or room, or being sent to the office. These can be modified so they relate to the misbehavior by adjusting phrasing such as in the case of a time-out, â€Å"You have chosen time out. You may return to the group when you are ready to learn† (University of Phoenix (Ed.), 2002, p. 212). Generic consequences are often also often positive reinforcement such as reminders, and warnings. Choosing, and planning are consequences that allow students to select from three or four planned options for improving behavior. This behavior plan, established by the student, identifies specific steps the student follows to correct inappropriate, repeated behaviors. It is written, dated and signed by the student. In some literature, this is also referred to as a behavioral contract (University of Phoenix (Ed.), 2002, p. 212). Instructional consequences, the fourth and final, teach students  appropriate behavior. These consequences are often in the form of review and practice. Behaviors such as hand raising, courtesy, and lining-up qui etly, etc. are learned easily when taught and practiced (University of Phoenix (Ed.), 2002, p. 213). Consequences are listed in a hierarchy and imposed by starting with the least severe to the most severe response within the period of one day. Each day, students start new. In order to track infractions or non-compliance with the Classroom Constitution, this teacher assigns each student a pocket in a pocket chart wherein each day all students begin with a green card. For the first and second infraction, there is a non-verbal, then verbal warning or reminder of appropriate behavior and/or a restatement of the article infraction, and the card remains green. For the third infraction, a yellow card is placed in the pocket and the student is sent to the Think-About-It Table and must fill in a My Behavior Form that includes basic questions to help the student identify the inappropriate behavior, the reason it is inappropriate, what corrective action the child can perform, and how the teacher may be able to help the student so they do not repeat the behavior. For the fourth infraction, an orange card is placed in the pocket, the student is sent to the Think-About-It Table, complete a behavior plan, parents are notified of the repeated inappropriate behaviors and informed that the continuation of such behavior will result in more severe actions. For the fifth infraction, a red card is placed in the pocket, the student is sent to the office and parents are again notified. Finally, in cases where the offense is so extreme as in the case of verbal or physical abuse of the teacher or another student, a black card is placed in the pocket, the office is called, the student is removed from the room, and parents are contacted. Classroom Collecting data Strategies ABC data collection uses basic observations and forms to collect data on a specific behavior, as well as the related antecedent and consequence. That information is essential to conducting a functional behavior assessment in order to analyze behavior and determine consequences. Behavior in children can be better managed and more effectively changed when the interventions are based on a functional analysis of ABC data. Data collection forms do not have to be complicated. They can be written in any  format as long as they allow for all of the needed information. The required information on the form should include the name of the person being observed, the date and time of day, and a good setting description. Additionally, observed behaviors, what was happening right before they occurred, and the response or consequence of the behavior should be noted. Many data collection forms for ABC data only have three columns. The columns are for the antecedent, the behavior, and the consequence. However, it is also important to note the time of the behavioral occurrences, their intensity, especially if they involve an emotional response, the duration, and possibly a place to tally the frequency of specific behaviors. The following is an example of ABC data collection. Typically it is a format that is used when an external observer is available who has the time and ability to observe and document behaviors during specified periods of the day. It is time and personnel intensive. From this data, we can see that when the student is asked to end an activity he is enjoying, he screams, refuses to leave, and ignores. We also can see that the response to Joe’s refusal consists mostly of empty threats. If we follow Joe throughout the day, we may find that he is asked repeatedly to follow directions. In addition, the data reveals that Joeâ€⠄¢s family uses threats that are not followed through. Joe has learned that persistence, ignoring, and refusal will wear parents down. (See appendix #3) Behaviors always have a trigger. That trigger could be to escape an unpleasant situation or to gain recognition or acceptance. Behaviors could also be triggered by the desire to fulfill a physical need. Other behaviors could be the result of a deficit in a particular skill area. It is important to note details about what was happening right before the behavior occurred, the antecedent, in order to determine the true trigger for the behavior. Many antecedents are not observable. For example, things like physical ailments, embarrassment or not understanding what to do can all result in a behavioral response. Sometimes, the ABC data collection may need to include getting information from the individual being observed. Of course, they should not know they are being observed so any questioning should be done after the fact or by someone else. Behaviors should always be specifically described in objective terms. Vague descriptions should be avoided. Additionally, any subjective  evaluation of the behavior should be avoided. For example, if a child would not comply with a request, the behavioral description should avoid references to defiance or attitude. However, a good description might be that a student was seated and did not appear to do anything or that a child said â€Å"no† or walked away and did not comply. A lack of a behavior, or not doing anything when a behavior is required, is still a behavior. Teachers sometimes say that a student does not have any concerning behaviors, only to find out that he is failing that class because he refuses to do anything. Behaviors that can be a concern are not limited to disruptive behaviors. It is also important to note any lack of needed behavior. Consequences include any response or result the behavior achieved for the child. For example, the same single behavior occurrence might get a child attention from the teacher and peers, as well as getting him out of doing work. Additionally, it could result in a poor grade. All consequences should be noted. It is important not to ignore any consequence because consequences often serve to promote that same behavior happening again. For example, it might seem obvious that a poor grade was not what a student wanted and so it could not possible be reinforcing. However, it is not unheard of for students to set themselves up for failure due to things like not being emotionally prepared for life after graduation. Never discount a consequence as not being important. Taking good data on the antecedent, the behavior, and the consequences, can provide the essential information for a good functional analysis of behavior. It is the basis for ultimately determining interventions, supports, and consequences that will change inappropriate behaviors into desired behaviors. ABC data collection can make a teacher’s and a parent’s job much easier. As a conclusion this candidate teacher can bring to a close that, purpose of discipline is to aid in this exciting process by explaining expectations to a group with differing ideas of what learning, school, science and good behavior are. By explicitly stating the responsibilities and consequences of actions in the classroom teachers can smooth these differences enough to focus on teaching students the excitement of discovering new ideas. Discipline is a part of the learning process rather than separate from it. Students’ brains are busy organizing and processing information all the time. There are layer upon layer of lessons to be taught, a whole world of  examples to be set and ideas to be sparked and I am thrilled with challenged and the opportunity to teach students so much. References Everston, M., Emmer, E., and Worsham, M. (2006). Maintaining an Effective Learning Climate [Custom Edition e-text]. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Pearson Custom Publishing Scholastic (n.d.). Our Classroom Standards. Retrieved from http://teacher.scholastic.com/LessonPlans/unit_teamworkstandards.pdf Teachers Tips Training. Retreived from http://deborah-o-banion.suite101.com/antecedent-behavior-consequence-abc-data-collection-a282857 Teachnology (n.d.) Classroom Rules: Elementary Level. Retrieved from http://worksheets.teach- nology.com/misc/back/rules/elem/ The Essential Elements of Cooperative Learning in the Classroom. Retrieved from http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-1/elements.htm University of Phoenix. (Ed.). (2002). Maintaining an Effective Learning Climate [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-text]. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing Appendixes Apendixe 3 |Antecedent |Behavior |Consequence | |Parent asks Joe to stop playing on the |Joe screams, â€Å"NO!† and refuses to|Parent tells Joe to leave the computer again. | |computer. |leave the computer. | | |Parent tells Joe to leave the computer. |Joe again refuses to leave. |Parent starts counting to 10 as a warning to | | | |get off the computer. | |Parent starts counting to 10 as a warning to|Joe does not move from the |Parent finishes counting to 10 and again warns| |get off the computer. |computer station. |him to get off the computer. | |Parent finishes counting to 10 and again |Joe stays at the computer and |Parent threatens that Joe lose computer | |warns him to get off the computer. |refuses to leave. |privileges in the future. | |Parent threatens that the Joe will lose |Joe ignores and continues working|The parent count to 10 again and again | |computer privileges in the future. |on the computer. |threatens future computer use. | |The parent counts to 10 again and again |Joe ignores and continues |The parent becomes angry and leaves the room. | |threatens future computer use |computer use. | | Appendix A Checklist 2 Norms, Expectations, Rules, and Procedures Check WhenProcedures/ Complete SubjectExpectations _ What are my short- and long-term goals for myself this year? _ What are my short- and long-term goals for my students this year? Room Use How will I establish basic procedures in the following areas? _ A. Teacher’s desk and storage areas _ B. Student desks and storage areas _ C. Storage for common materials _ D. Drinking fountains, sink, pencil sharpener _ E. Restrooms _ F. Centers or equipment areas _ G. Computer stations _ H. Board Individual Work and Teacher-Led Activities _ A. Attention during presentations _ B. Participation _ C. Talk among students _ D. Obtaining help _ E. When individual work has been completed Transitions into and out of the Room _ A. Beginning the school day _ B. Leaving the room _ C. Returning to the room _ D. Ending the day Procedures for Small-Group Instruction _ A. Getting the class ready _ B. Student movement _ C. Expected behavior in the group _ D. Expected behavior of students out of group _ E. Materials and supplies Procedures for Cooperative Group Activities _ A. Roles of group members _ B. Expected behavior _ C. Interaction to include each member _ D. Interaction to move toward instructional goals General Procedures _ A. Distributing materials _ B. Classroom helpers _ C. Interruptions or delays _ D. Restrooms _ E. Library, resource room, school office _ F. Cafeteria _ G. Playground _ H. Fire and disaster drills _ I. Classroom helpers (Everston, Emmer, and Worsham, 2006, p. 39-40) Appendix B Checklist 5 Planning for Instruction Check WhenNotes Complete Before the Lesson Ask Yourself _ A. What are the most important concepts or skills to be learned? _ B. What kind of learning is your goal (memorization, application, appreciation)? Have you communicated this to your students? _ C. What learning style is targeted by this lesson? Are you varying learning modalities? _ D. Are there difficult words or concepts that need extra explanation? _ E. How will you help students make connections to previous learning? _ F. What activities will you plan to create interest in the lesson? _ G. How will you make transitions between activities? _ H. What materials will be needed? Will students need to learn how to use them? _ I. What procedures will students need to know to complete the activities? _ J. How much time will you allocate for the lesson? For different parts  of the lesson? _ K. If activities require that students work together, how will groups be formed? How will you encourage productive work in groups? _ L. What examples and questioning strategies will you use? Prepare a list of examples for explanations and list higher-order questions. _ M. How will you know during and after the lesson what students understand? _ N. What are some presentation alternatives if students have trouble with concepts (peer explanation, media, etc.)? _ O. Are there extra- or special-help students? _ P. How will you make sure that all students participate? _ Q. How will you adjust the lesson if time is too short or too long? _ R. What kind of product, if any, will you expect from students at the end of the lesson? _ S. What will students do when they finish? _ T. How will you evaluate students’ work and give them feedback? _ U. How will the concepts you present be used by students in future lessons? (Everston, Emmer, and Worsham, 2006, p. 109-110) Appendix C Checklist 6 Planning for Cooperative Group Instruction Check WhenNotes Complete Item Room Arrangement _ A. How will student seating be arranged? _ B. How will individual and group materials and supplies be stored? Routines and Expectations _ A. What are your expectations for student movement to, from, and during group work? _ B. What expectations about talk will you communicate to students? _ C. What group attention signals will be used? _ D. Will students have specific roles? _ E. Do any group skills have to be discussed, modeled, or practiced? Monitoring, Accountability, and Feedback Procedures _ A. Will group work have individual products, group products, or both? _ B. How will individual or group work be assessed? _ C. How will you monitor student behavior and work during group activities? _ D. How will students receive feedback about individual and group performance? _ E. How will students receive feedback about their behavior in groups? Group Skills That Must Be Discussed, Modeled, or Practiced _ A. Social skills? _ B. Explaining skills? _ C. Leadership skills? (Everston, Emmer, and Worsham, 2006, p. 130-131) Apeendix 1 Lesson Plan for Classroom Management |KS2004 Correlated Sets | |[pic] | |KS2004.CA.6.1.4.10 |KBI: identifies the topic, main idea(s), supporting details, and theme(s) in text across the content areas and | | |from a variety of sources in appropriate-level texts. | Specific Content Objectives Students will be able to identify the topic, main idea, and supporting details of a grade level passage in a variety of content areas. Language Goal The language goal is to read for comprehension. Expected prior Knowledge Students need to be able to decode words and use context clues to identify words. They need to read at a fourth grade level with 75% comprehension. They need to have a basic vocabulary knowledge level for fourth grade reading material. They need to be able to work with a partner for reading and discussing ideas. Procedures/Management Review procedure for classroom discussion: listen when the teacher is talking, raise hand, listen to others, one person speak at a time. Review procedure for working with partners: taking turns reading (2’s read first, 1’s write), both discussing, raise hand with question after consulting partner. Review procedures for turning in work: classroom clerks for the week collect papers and put in bin. Technology links I got my practice sheets from edHelper.com Students can work at computers in partner groups to: look up unknown words at http://dictionary.reference.com look for Internet articles on related topics of interest Instructional Strategies for learner success The paragraphs and articles students will read include information about science, social studies, music, and art. Students work with partners to read passages and decide what the topic, main idea, and supporting details are. They will first answer multiple choice questions about passages and then fill out graphic organizers together. If there is time, or on another day, they will look up topics of interest on the Internet and determine the topic, main idea, and details. Day 1: Anticipatory Set (Jump-start) I will have chosen a short article of high interest from Scholastic Magazine. I will write several vocabulary words that may be new from the article on the board. I will ask students what the words are and what topic they may be about. We will discuss the words, meanings, and I will assess prior knowledge about the topic from the discussion. Day 1: Purpose/ Motivation I will tell the students that they will be able to identify the topic, main idea, and supporting details about something they read. This matters because they will read for information throughout their lives. They will use this skill when reading about things they need to learn about, as well as items of interest to enrich their lives. Day 1: Modeling/ Direct Instruction After explaining that they should listen for the topic, main idea, and details, I will read a short, high- interest article from Scholastic Magazine while they follow along with copies for each partner group. I will show them a multiple choice question about what the main idea of the article is, and we will answer it as a class. I will write the main idea on the board or overhead. Then I will talk about supporting details and give several examples. I will underline these details on my copy on the overhead. I will ask for input about details and underline them. Day 1: Guided Practice I will guide students as they write the main idea and underline the supporting details on their copies of the article in their partner groups. I will give each group two practice pages. One has short passages with multiple choice questions, and the other has short passages with instructions to write the main idea and underline supporting details. Each partner group will do these together. Students will be numbered 1 or 2. 2’s start with the reading and 1’s start with the writing, and then they switch with each passage. I will have a checklist for each group with tasks for this lesson: Write main idea and underline supporting details for the article I read. Read and answer multiple choice questions for passages on corresponding sheet. Look at/read articles of choice from Scholastic Magazine for 15 minutes. May discuss with partner. Read, write main idea, and underline details on corresponding sheet. Groups can check off each task as they complete it. When they are finished, 1’s put the papers in the bin and students read library or classroom books quietly until the others are finished. I will walk around, observe, informally assess, and give verbal praise and tickets toward a class auction as students work. Groups will also get points for cooperating and being polite in groups. These points will add up toward activity rewards. I make sure they have a lot of reinforcement at the beginning of the guided practice, and as they begin the underlining practice sheet. I will do the first multiple choice question as a class. If necessary, I will do the first one on the underlining sheet as a class. Students at a lower reading level will be given passages at a lower reading level. I will pair very low students with partners that can help them more. My para or I will read the passages to very low groups if needed. Day 1: Assessment I will observe and informally assess students throughout the lesson, and as they do guided practice. I will have a check sheet for students as they do group work. The completed papers will be graded and returned with feedback. After several days of doing other related activities, I will give a test to assess individual comprehension of main idea and details. Day 1: Reflection/ Plans for Diverse learners After instruction, reflection on the engagement level and pacing of the lesson, on the procedures and transitions, and on the assessed level of competency of the students provides the avenue for fine-tuning the next day’s lesson. Tutoring, pre-teaching, re-teaching, and scaffolding are strategies available to ensure success of diverse learners. Once it is evident that learners lack the skills needed for the task, a plan must evolve for building those skills. I will grade the papers and use the results along with the engagement level of the students to determine if students understand the concept so far. I will reflect on whether or not the procedures were understood and followed, and how the transitions went. If necessary, I would re-teach these, or make changes in these aspects. I will also decide whether the lesson was presented at a good pace. If many of them do not get the concept, I will plan to do more multiple choice questions on passages with them before moving on. I could also plan more verbal responses to finding the main idea and details. They could work on reading and sharing verbal responses as a class and in groups. I would do re-teaching and use more examples and have more verbal responses. I could review using context clues to identify unknown words, and review some basic phonics skills. If the students understand and are ready to move on, I will plan to have them read passages and write the main idea and details on a graphic organizer. They will also find articles on the Internet and identify main idea and details. Finally, they would write a short passage and have other students determine main idea and details. Day 2: Anticipatory set (see descriptor above) Day 2: Purpose/ Motivation Day 2: Modeling/ Direct Instruction Day 2: Guided Practice Day 2: Assessment Day 2: Reflection/ Plans for Diverse Learners Day 3: Anticipatory Set Day 3: Purpose/Motivation Day 3: Modeling/ Direct Instruction Day 3: Guided Practice Day 3: Assessment Day 3: Reflection/ Plans for Diverse Learners Day 4: Anticipatory Set Day 4: Purpose/ Motivation Day 4: Modeling/ Direct Instruction Day 4: Guided Practice Day 4: Assessment Day 4: Reflection/ Plans for Diverse Learners Day 5: Anticipatory Set Day 5: Purpose/ Motivation Day 5: Modeling/ Direct Instruction Day 5: Guided Practice Day 5: Assessment Day 5: Reflections/ Plans for Diverse Learners Appendix 2 |SAMPLE PARENT LETTER | |Greetings Students and Parents! | |Starting August , you willing be embarking on an exciting journey; a journey that will lead you to, my classroom! Through several forms of| |instruction, I am committed to educating, engaging, and challenging you who are willing and eager to learn! | |You will be pleased to hear that in my class, there are no rules; only expectations. My classroom expectations are clear, simple, and easy| |to follow: | |Listen attentively and follow directions. Throughout the year, our class will be doing many fun and exciting activities. Some will test | |what you know and others will challenge your mind to explore into ideas that you may not know quite yet. It will be important for you to | |listen and follow my directions. | |Ask for permission. I am very flexible and open to allowing you the chance to explore and learn things through hands-on tasks. Some | |activities may require you to use equipment and tools that you are not familiar w ith. For your safety, it  is very important that you ask | |me for permission before handling materials. | |Be respectful of personal space and property. Students enrolled in my class are guaranteed the right to personal space and respect. To | |ensure our class is engaged and on task, I ask that we each honor the people around us by respecting their space and things. If in doubt, | |use the Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do to you. | |Participate in the group as well as individually. Students are encouraged to succeed and give it their all. My class motto is: I will do | |my best, not be the best, but expect the best from others in the class as well. A student will not be judged by the ability of another | |student. All I can ever ask and expect from the students in my class is that they do their very best—not try to be the best in the | |class—and encourage others to do their best as well. | |HAVE FUN! School is hard work and I believe we are in for a great journey. A journey would not be of any importance unless you had great | |fun along the way! It is my intention to provide several opportunities for you to explore learning through difference perspectives and to | |have a great deal of FUN! | |I plan to use a positive attitude as well as various teaching techniques to meet your needs. I am hoping to create and maintain an | |open-door policy of communication for parents and students. If you have any questions before the first day of school, I encourage you to | |give me a call at home (812.346.7632) or on my cell phone (502.403.7320). | |Make this year count! Come join the fun and see what the party is all about! | |Mr. James Vincent, 5th Grade | |Spartan Elementary School | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Classroom Rules or Expectations | |My classroom rules are: | |1. Speak kindly to others | |2. Listen when the teacher is talking to you | |3. Follow adult instructions the first time given | |4. Keep area clean | |5. Keep hands and feet to yourself | |6. Do your own best work | | | | | | | | | | | | |

Globalization Case paper-marketing Essay

There are new technologies that are emerging in the market and this ahs led to advancements in communication and transport. Every marketer in the world wants his/her products marketed by use of the new technology. The recent developments in technology have resulted in the emergence of standardized consumer products that are marketed in the global market. Consumer preferences that were regional or country based have ceased globally and the needs and desires of people have been homogenized. This has resulted in failure of most of the multinational corporations while the global corporations are thriving in business. Homogenization in the global market can be seen in the case of Coca-cola and Pepsi-cola, these two producers sell their globally standardized products around the world which is filled with people with different tastes and preferences but they make good sales. Unlike before when companies perceived that overseas prices were higher, now companies are using a common method to distribute finance and price their products internationally. The markets that used to be small and nation based have expanded to market their products globally; this has been necessitated by the competition that exists leading to increased efficiency in the production, management, marketing and distribution of products. Customers tend to prefer products from companies that have forced the costs and prices down while on the other hand increasing the quality and reliability of their products. Large companies that operate in a single country are very much unlikely to standardize their products internationally. Companies that lack clarified global focus and are not attentive to the economies of simplicity and standardization are faced with a lot of problems in their marketing lines. The multinational corporation knows a lot about very many countries while the global corporation understands the need to be competitive on a global scale as well as on a national scale and is always aimed at reducing its prices by standardizing its products and operations. Due to the current global markets there has been a great deal of division of labor and specialization. Large scale production of standardized items has been seen to be cheaper within a wide range of volume than small scale production (Theodore, 1984). Implications for a global marketer Global marketers need to come up with ways that will increase their competitive advantage globally and these would help them survive in the global market. Use of the current technology can increase the global marketers’ area of business. The global marketers also need to standardize their products so as to make sure that they are fit for the international market. For a global marketer to thrive in business he has to change the mentality that marketing is giving the customers what they need and look at marketing as trying to understand what exactly the customer would like. Global marketers should not therefore persist with costly, customized multinational products and services but they should aim and press for global standardization. The global marketer also needs to note the barriers to globalization that exist in the market; these barriers are normally experienced in the Middle East countries and also the transfer of data and technology across the boundaries of the European market countries is hindered by financial and legal impediments that exist. Another barrier that may affect the global marketer is the resistance to radio and television interference that exists in some neighboring European countries. Before any marketer thinks of exporting their domestic products there is need to assess how the products need to be changed to fit in the international market. Most customers always need a product that meet their needs and so they need certain features in the products but research has shown that they can take other features if the promotion and the price was right and therefore global marketers should come up with practices that are aimed at reducing their prices. The wider the marketer’s global reach, the greater the number of national preferences encountered in the promotion and distribution of the products and therefore the global marketer should accommodate differences at some times. Companies should also note that it is not automatic that there exists a market of their products in a region where a similar company flourished in business. Recommendations and additional thoughts Companies that wholly capitalize on economic convergence can still make adjustments and distinctions in different markets. For any company to go global it has to undergo the following stages; stage one is when the company focuses only on the domestic market, stage two is when the company still has a home focus but it has exports, stage three is when the company realizes that it has to focus more on the multinational than the domestic market and in stage four the company has global organizations that aim at marketing the company’s products globally. During this time when the company is moves through the four stages its marketing is affected by the effect on products, promotion, placement and the price of the products. As many companies try to become global there is need to look at the demerits that are associated with the practice, they include; difference in business laws, different distribution channels, differences in the administration procedures and the differences that exist in the consumer response, needs and usage pattern of the products (Helsen and Kotabe, 2004). WORD COUNT 882 WORDS REFERENCE LIST Helsen, K, and Kotabe, M (2004), Global Marketing Management – 3rd Edition, San Francisco John Wiley & Sons, Inc – Publishers. Pp. 10-12 Theodore Levitt, (1984), the globalization of markets, The Mc Kinsey Quarterly. Pp. 2-19

Youth Work

Adolescent Development I am going to discuss the factors affecting young people during adolescent development. I will be exploring the physical and physiological, psychological, and social impact of change in adolescent, and the theories relating to the stages of development and identity formation. Adolescence is the period of transition to adulthood. The first thing I am going to consider is the physical and physiological changes associated with adolescence. During this time a young person will experience physical and emotional changes. This can take 5 years or more and is a long process. At this period of rapid growth and sexual development in adolescence is called puberty. Growth and development of the body is controlled by chemicals called hormones. There is an increase in strength and height which if it occurs quickly it may cause the young person to have balance and co-ordination difficulties. It is difficult to determine specific times when the developmental changes occur; these will differ from person to person. However girls develop approximately two years earlier than boys. In girls during this period menstruation begins and physical changes happen such as breasts, pubic hair, body hair and sexual organs begin to grow. Changes In boys, pubic hair, facial hair and body hair begin to grow, including sexual organs testes and penis. The testosterone increasing sexual urges and erections, the pituary gland is responsible for releasing the hormones which have an effect on boys and girls. Hormones have a significant effect on young people; the signs may be changes in attitude and behaviour. A young person may experience feelings of anxiety, confusion, delusion, anger, frustration, fear, stress and humiliation. They may have a low opinion of themselves and their abilities and have anger they don’t know how to express in a productive way. Additional factors include culture expectations, peer pressure, pressure to achieve and there may be relationship issues with parents including conflict. Young people are searching for their own identity as well as pressure from the media and stereotypes formed by society and their environment. Some young people may have to face personal transitions not necessarily shared or understood by all their peers. These include family illness bereavement, divorce and family break up; issues relating to sexuality, disability and many more. Using the theory in practice I feel that I am using effective communication like listening, observation, empathy, and reflection increasing my knowledge and understanding of groups. One of the theory’s by Bruce Tuckman was â€Å"encouraging engagement involving and consulting with young people and considering their opinions, views, interests and issues that affect them† promoting the 4 corner stone’s of youth work. I have identified some possible changes in gender in specific to groups in relation to adolescence. Some of the things I have become more aware during formal discussions in key topics of interest are opposite sex, drugs, culture and family break ups, the perceptions of them by the media and their peers, their body image and comparisons with celebrities on TV. I have identified opportunities to discuss and provide information on these issues offering workshops and group activities using different outside agencies with their specialist knowledge. One of the workshops was on drugs and a young person told us about their experiment with drugs and reflected on his feelings and choice. I communicated to him and praised him for being brave; he had identified how he had been influenced by his friends in to taking drugs. I could relate to this issue and can understand that sometimes there is a need to experiment and to feel part off the group it can influence your actions and choices. Social development in adolescence and identity formation is a new way of thinking about oneself. According to Erikson’s â€Å"psychosocial model of development identity must be perceived by the individual but also recognized and confirmed by others†. He believed this socialization process consists of eight phases are universal, and each stage is associated with their own unique developmental crisis. The crisis is an individual is thought to face in adolescence stage 5, 12 to 18 years is that of identity vs. role confusion. The individual will answer the question â€Å"Who am I? † peer relationships play an important role in this event. The individual must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sex roles, politics and religion finding their own niche in adult society and developing a set of long term goals for the future. As suggested by Erikson and research peers become important, adolescents share in common the state of confusion, similar experiences, and feelings of loneliness, conflict with parents or authority, and a lack of identity so often transfer some of their emotional dependency from their parents to their peers. Young people are seeking role models and will imitate and copy behaviour and identity, until they eventually become more stable from their own identity that fits them as an individual. There can be pressures to fit in and be accepted some may become less interested in academic achievement and may engage in illicit behaviour such as drinking , having sexual relationships ,crime and drug use. Peer groups are often perceived by the media and society in a stereotypical, negative manner with frequent references to anti – social behaviour, gun/knife crime, poor educational achievement and teenage pregnancies. The media ,music ,sports ,celebrities has an effect on the way a young person perceives themselves in society and who they identify as role models , they may become more self – conscious of their body image (media portrays image of beauty and perfection ) develop low self – esteem and adopt materialistic or unrealistic goals for the future. In summary adolescences is the period of transition to adulthood. The young person will experience physical and emotional changes which can be quite a long painful process. Identity development is associated with adolescence as suggested by Erikson a sense of identity is not yet fully developed. A firmly established identity also provides a sense of uniqueness as a person . Young people see and experience the world in different ways; they have individual situations and developmental issues. It is important to consider issues of the effects of peer pressure, the media, role models, perceptions by society and appreciate the huge impact of changes on adolescent development. Reflecting on your own experiences and others perspectives enables you to challenge your thinking and engage with young people to reach their own decision , value their own personal experiences by offering support, reassurance in a proactive way to encourage their transition into adult life to achieve a sense of identity, purpose and goal in their life .

Alexandra Kollontai – Biography

Biographical information: Name – Alexandra Mikhailovna Kollontai Born – March 31st 1872 in St. Petersburg Died – March 9th 1952 in Moscow Occupation – Russian communist revolutionary, Soviet Ambassador to Norway Family background: Kollontai was born to a relatively wealthy family. Her father, General Mikhail Alekseevich Domontovich, served as a Calvary officer in the Russo-Turkish war and was an advisor to the Russian administration in Bulgaria. Kollontai’s mother, Alexandra Androvna Masalina-Mravinskaia, was a daughter of a Finnish peasant who made a fortune selling wood.Kollontai’s parent’s long and difficult struggle to be together would colour her views on relationships, sex and marriage. Kollontai was extremely close with her father, both sharing an interest in history and politics. Education: Kollontai’s mother and her nanny were demanding, â€Å"There was order in everything, there was order in everything: to tidy up toy s myself, to lay my underwear on a little chair at night, to wash neatly, to study my lessons on time, to treat the servants with respect†.Alexandra was considered a good student, mastering a range of languages. She spoke French with her mothers and sisters, English to her Nanny, Finnish with the peasants at a family estate, and she was a student of German. Alexandra wanted to continue her education at university but her mother said that there was no real need for women to have higher education. Political membership: At the time of the split in the Russian Social Democrat Labour Party in 1903, into the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks, Kollontai did not side with either.Kollontai then first joined the Mensheviks but then in 1915 finally joined the Bolsheviks. After the Bolshevik revolution in 1917, Kollontai became the People’s Commissar for Social Welfare. Kollontai founded the Zhenotdel or â€Å"Women’s Department† in 1919. This organisation worked to impro ve the condition of women’s lives in the Soviet Union, fighting illiteracy and educating women about the new marriage laws put in place by the revolution. Revolutionary activities:Kollontai’s first activities were timid and modest, helping out a few hours a week with her sister at a library that supported Sunday classes in basic literacy for urban workers, sneaking a few socialist ideas into the lesson sideways. At this library, Kollontai met Elena Stasova, an activist in the budding Marxist movement in St. Petersburg. Stasova began using Kollontai as a courier, transporting parcels of illegal writings to unknown individuals.In 1898 Kollontai left to study Economics in Zurich, Switzerland. She then paid a visit to England, where she met members of the British Labour party. She returned to Russia in 1899, at which time she met Vladimir Lenin. She became a member of the Russian Social Democrat Labour Party in 1899. Kollontai went in exile, to Germany in 1908 after publis hing â€Å"Finland and Socialism†, which called on the Finnish people to rise up against oppression within the Russian empire.

Pleurotus spp

The fungi are a group of eukaryotic organisms. Due to their microscopic cellular dimensions, they are of great interest to microbiologists. Multicellular fungi is familiar to each and every one of us. The velvety blue and green growth on rotting oranges and lemons as well as on stale cheeses, the whitish grey furry outgrowth on bread and Jam, and the mushrooms in the field. These are the bodies of a variety of fungi. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms†They need organic compounds for nutrition.The classification of fungi, unlike that of bacteria, is based primarily on the hracterstics of the sexual spores and fruiting bodies, present during the sexual stages of their life cycle. However, the sexual spores and fruiting bodies are produced only under certain environmental conditions, if they are known to produce them at all. Pleurotus is a genus of gilled mushrooms which includes one of the most widely eaten mushrooms. Species of pleurotus may be called oyesters, abalone or tree mu shrooms and are some of the most commonly cultivated edible mushrooms in the world.They have been very much useful in mycoremediation of pollutants such as petroleum and polycyclic aromatic ydrocarbons. The name pleurotus has been derived from the greek word pleure (side) + otos (ear) which means â€Å"Side Ear†. The following are the details of Pleurotus Genus scientific classification: l. The kingdom of pleurotus is Fungi, II. Phylum is basidiomycota, Ill. class is Agaricomycetes ‘V. Order is agaricales V. Family is pleurotaceae The basic structure of oyster mushroom includes a capwhich may be laterally attached (with no stem).If there is a stem, it is normally eccentric and the gills are extended downward along it. The term pleurotoid is used for mushrooms having this eneral shape. There are certain cylindrical spores which are smooth and elongated. Where hyphae meet, they are Joined by clamp connections. Pleurotus is not considered to be a bracket fungus and most of the species are monomitic (with a soft consistency). Pleurotus Ostreatus Specifications Scientific name: Pleurotus ostreatus Oacq. ) P. Kumm. Derivation of name: Ostre- means â€Å"oyster† and atus means â€Å"resembling. † Synonyms: Agaricus ostreatus Jacq.Common name(s): Oyster mushroom. Phylum: Basidiomycota Order: Agaricales Family: Pleurotaceae Occurrence on wood substrate: Saprobic or parasitic; olitary to more typically in overlapping clusters on living or dead deciduous trees, on rotting logs and stumps, sometimes on conifers; April all the way through November, year-round during mild periods. Dimensions: Caps 5-20 or more cm wide; stipes 0. 5-4 cm long and 0. 5- 3. 5 cm thick. Stripes may be absent. Cap: Moist or dry; smooth; variable in color: whitish to cream, greyish to brown, some with lilac tones; oyster shell- shaped to fan-shaped or semicircular.Gills: Decurrent or glowing from point of attachment; broad; whitish, yellowish in age. Spore print: White t o pale lilac-gray. Stipe: Sometimes absent or rudimentary. If present, lateral to eccentric or even central if fruitbodies are on top of a log or stump; whitish; hairy at base. Veil: Absent. Edibility: Edible, rated as choice. The oyster and abalone mushrooms belong to the genus pleurotus. They have a high saprophyte colonizing ability and can grow on virtually any agricultural waste. They rank among the top six mushrooms produced in the world.It should be noted that the availability of a good strain of mushrooms, suitable substrate for cultivation and control of saprophytic and parasitic microorganisms are the three most important spects for mushroom cultivation. The world production for this genus was 169,000 tons in 1986. The consumption and production of edible mushrooms in developing countries have occurred for many years. There has been a high upsurge of interest in cultivation of this mushroom in the last decade. Because of their spicy flavour and their medical effects in dro pping plasma cholesterol, mushrooms are widely consumed in Europe, the U.S. A and Japan. Many of the fleshy sporocarp species of the many acomycetes and basidiomycetes can safely be eaten while only a few poisonous species of the fleshy fungi can be found . However more than one thousand mushrooms are known, about one hundred mushrooms are edible and only a few are considered of a commercial value. Pleurotus ostreatus is relatively easy to grow. A few trials to produce the mycelium of oyster mushrooms in Egypt using some agro industrial wastes were only recently carried out. The goal of this work was to study the cultivation of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp. emphasizing the effect of different media and organic substrates on production. Mushrooms of Pleurotus spp. are commonly known as oyster mushrooms which occupy the second osition among cultivated edible mushrooms worldwide due to their nutritional values. They are widely cultivated all over the world. Its production is remarkab ly affected by the environmental conditions like temperature and relative humidity. In this study, we investigated the production of four species of oyster mushroom: 1 . ) Pleurotus ostreatus 2. ) P. florida 3. ) P. aJor-caJu and 4. ) p. High king Cultivated in every season( January to December) in Bangladesh. The temperature (in C) and relative humidity (%RH) ot culture house in each month, and parameters ot ushroom production were recorded. In all of the selective study of this species, the minimum days required for primordial initiation, and the utmost number of fruiting bodies, biological yield and biological efficiency were found during December to February (14-27 oc, 70-80% RH). The production was found minimum during the cultivated time August to October.We suggested cultivation of selected Pleurotus spp. in winter (temperature zone 14-27 oc with relative humidity for better production and biological efficiency. The environmental factor is very important for the production of oyster mushrooms. Various mushrooms are known to be very sensitive to the climatic conditions. The major environmental factors like temperature, humidity, fresh air and compact materials affect in mushroom production. Pleurotus spp. grows in wide range of temperature (15-30 oc) which also varies from species to species.Oyster mushrooms Pleurotus spp. draw their nutritional requirement from a host substrate or from the agricultural wastes rich in lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses used for their cultivation. Due to varying nutrients in the substrates, different mushroom yields have been recorded by various workers. Oyster mushrooms are grown from mycelium (threadlike filaments that become interwoven) propagated on a base of steam-sterilized cereal grain (usually rye or millet). This cereal grain/mycelium mixture is called spawn and is used to seed mush-room substrate.Most spawn is made with mycelium from a stored culture, rather than mycelium whose parent was a spore. This is beca use spores are likely to yield a new strain and performance would be unpredictable. Spawn-making is a rather complex task and not feasible for the ordinary mushroom grower. Spawn of various oyster mushroom species may be urchased from com-mercial spawn makers who usually provide instructions for its use. Spawn frequently is shipped from the manufacturer to growers in the same aseptic containers used for spawn production.Inoculum for spawn production is frequently produced in polyethylene bags containing a micro porous breather strip for gas exchange. Most commercial spawn production companies produce spawn only from inoculums that has met strict quality control standards. These standards include verification of inoculums production performance before it is used to produce spawn and assurance of the spawn's biological purity and vigour So ariable in size, shape and colour are the many kinds of oyster mushroom that confident recognition of some species is tricky without resorting to m icroscopic analysis.The process is not helped by the fruiting habit of many Pleurotusspecies that seem to delight in emerging beyond reach, sometimes high up in the crowns of trees. For the most part the various oyster mushrooms are saprophytic on deciduous trees, and only very rarely are they found on conifers. Distribution Pleurotus ostreatus, the Oyster Mushroom, occurs throughout Britain and Ireland as well as in most parts of mainland Europe. It is also widely distributed throughout much of Asia, including Japan, and is present in parts of North America.Several similar species within the Pleurotus genus are often confused, and so distribution data for individual species in this complex group are inevitably subject to some uncertainty. Taxonomic history The Oyster Mushroom was first described scientifically in 1775 by Dutch naturalist Nikolaus Joseph Freinerr von Jacquin 7) and named Agaricus ostreatus. (In the early days of fungus taxonomy most of the gilled mushrooms were inco rporated in the genus Agaricus. ) In 1871 German mycologist Paul Kummer transferred theOyster Mushroom to the genus Pleurotus (a new genus that Kummer himself had defined in 1971), giving it its currently accepted scientific name. Synonyms of Pleurotus ostreatus includeAgaricus ostreatus Jacq. , Crepidopus ostreatusoacq. ) Gray, and Pleurotus columbinus Quel. The blue-grey-capped form of this mushroom is referred to by some authorities as Pleurotus ostreatus var. columbinus (Quel) Quel. Etymology The generic name Pleurotus is Latin for ‘side ear' and refers to the lateral attachment of the stem;ostreatus is a reference to oysters, and in shape the fruitbodies often do esemble oyster shells.The specimens shown on this page show Just how changeable Oyster Mushrooms can be – not only in colour and form but also in their growing habitat. From the top: on a dead Beech trunk; next on a standing live (but surely dying) Cabbage Palm; and at last on a dead branch broken fallen f rom an old Ash tree. Importance of nitrogen sources for the growth of pleurotus spp. :- i) Nitrogen is an essential element for cellular functions, for growth and various metabolic activities, particularly protein and enzyme synthesis. i') The nitrogen content of mycelium ranges between 3-6%. i) Cereal straw used for cultivation of oyster mushroom is a poor source of nitrogen (0. 5 to 0. 8%) and at the time of fructification when most of the nitrogen is utilized for mycelia growth, the depleted nitrogen in the substrate becomes inadequate and limits mushroom yield. ‘v) In the present studies seven dissimilar nitrogen sources : wheat bran, rice bran, soya bean floor, de-oiled soya bean meal, mustard cake, cotton seed cake and cotton seed meal were evaluated for their effect on mushroom yield. v) Cotton seed cake and de-oiled soya bean meal gave significantly higher yield than unsupplemented bags.Review of literature : The oyster mushroom Pleurotus spp is a saprophytic fungus co mmercially cultivated throughout the world because of its tasty basidiocarp and simple cultivation technology. It is also one of the choicest white rot fungi for research scientists to investigate. Pleurotus spp's lignocellulolytic enzymes for bioremediation (Arisoy and Kalan Kayan 1997, Walter et. al. 1997), its flavour compounds, (Mau et. al. 1998), its synthesis of diterpene and polysaccharide (Gutirrez et. al. 1996) and its natural pigment extraction (Shirata and Kato 1998) make it a promising subject for study.Oyster mushrooms are mainly cultivated on residues from agricultural crops such as wheat, paddy, cotton, sugar cane or soybean (Sohi and Upadhyay 1989, Savalgi and Savalgi 1994). Pleurotus spp also have the potential to mineralize and grow on industrial wastes such as tea (Upadhyay et. al. 1996), apple pomace (Upadhyay and Sohi 1988) or non-conventional substrates containing lignin, cellulose or hemicellulose such as dried Populus leaves. (Upadhyay and Verma 2000). These residues are low (0. 5 to 0. 8%) in nitrogen content. Several workers have reported varying fresh oyster mushroom yields using crop residues (Sohi and Upadhyay 1987,Madan et. al. 1987). The variations may be due to the nutrient status of the substrate used for cultivation. The production of oyster mushrooms after the first flush is drastically reduced and there is a tlusn break ot 10 to 20 days depending upon the species of oyster mushroom. The yield turn down could be due to either depletion of nutrients or accumulation of toxic substances unfavourable to fruiting. In Agaricus bisporus, increased yields have been reported by supplementing with various proteins, carbohydrate or oil rich supplements like soybean meal, cotton seed meal, alfalfa meal or corn gluten meal.Sinder and Schisler 1962, Gerrits 1983). In the present studies seven different organic nitrogenous materials were evaluated to find out their effect on yield. The best substrates were further evaluated for their optima l dose with maximum yield. Materials and Methods Prewetted chopped wheat straw (2-3cm) was mixed with calcium sulphate (4% w/w) and carbendazim 50% w. p. (1 5g/quintal) and a rectangular pile prepared. It was given two turnings on alternate days for four days so that the temperature did not exceed more than 600C during fermentation.After four days, the partially fermented traw was pasteurized in a tunnel at 700C for 6h and subsequently conditioned at 450C for 36h. Supplements (wheat bran, rice bran, cotton seed meal, cotton seed cake, soybean meal, de-oiled soybean cake and mustard cake) were separately treated in a answer of carbendazim (100ppm) for 16h. The rate of adding up of all the supplements was 5% (dry wt. ) except wheat and rice bran (10%). Treated supplements were thoroughly mixed at the time of spawning with pasteurized straw. Twenty-day-old spawn of P. ostratuas var florida was added at a 3% wet wt.Five kg spawned substrate was filled into 45x30cm polyethelene bags with 10 holes (5mm ia. ). Each supplement had six replications. Spawned bags were incubated in a dark cropping room (temp. 13-18'C). Colonized bags were opened after 25 days. A relative humidity of 70-75% was maintained by spraying water twice a day; 6-8h light was provided with fluorescent tubes; and carbon dioxide concentration was maintained at 700-780 ppm in the cropping room. Mushrooms were harvested daily before spraying and data were recorded. Biological efficiency (BE) was planned on the basis of fresh mushrooms from 100 kg dry substrate weight.In the second experiment, cotton seed cake and de-oiled soybean cake were further evaluated r their effective optimum dose. The supplements were treated as before, at a rate of 1, 2. 5, 5, 7. 5 and 10% substrate dry weight. Table 1. Effect of organic supplements to wheat straw on fresh mushroom yield of Pleurotus ostreatus var florida in 60 days. S. No. Substrate + Supplements Average Yield (kg) per kg substrate Biological efficiency (BE) (%) Percent increase (+) or decrease (-) from control Wheat straw + wheat bran (10%) 0. 860 86. 0 +20. 6 Wheat straw + rice bran (10%) 0. 838 83. 8 +17. 5 3.Wheat straw + cotton seed cake (5%) 0. 946 94. 6 -12. 2 4. Wheat straw + cotton seed meal (5%) 0. 46 64. 6 5. Wheat straw + soybean meal (5%) 0. 732 73. 2 2. 6 6. Wheat straw + de-oiled soybean cake (5%) 0. 928 92. 8 +30. 1 7. Wheat straw + mustard cake (5%) 0. 532 53. 2 -25. 3 8. Wheat straw (control) 0. 713 71 . 3 CD at 0. 21 1 Table 2. Effect of different doses of de-oiled soybean cake on fresh mushroom yield and dry matter of Pleurotus ostreatus var florida. S. NO. Rate of supplementation (Dry wt. ) % increase over control % dry matter content in 1st and 2nd tlusnes Wheat straw 1% soybean 92. +21 9. 85 10. 04 2. 2. 5% soybean 84. 8 +11. 57 9. 45 10. 0 5% soybean 84. 5 +11. 18 10. 29 10. 25 7. % soybean 87. 8 +1 5. 52 8. 8 9. 75 10. 0% soybean 83. 2 +8. 15 9. 3 10. 55 76. 0 6. 9 The dry matter content of mushrooms harvested from both the supplements at different doses are shown in Table 2 and Table 3. Soybean supplementation generally yielded heavier mushrooms in the first flush than cotton seed cake supplementation. Maximum dry matter content was recorded from bags supplemented with 5% de-oiled soybean cake and further increase in supplementation did not yield heavier mushrooms.In cotton seed cake, the heaviest mushroom truit bodies were observed with 0% dose in the first tlusn, while in the econd flush, the lowest rate of application gave the heaviest mushrooms. The dry matter content in the second flush was generally more than the first flush for both the supplements. Interestingly the spore print colour of the mushrooms from 10% soybean was a creamy yellow. The nutritional analysis of mushrooms attain from different supplements is under investigation. The addition of cotton seed cake gave the maximum yield increase (+47. 7%) while soybean cake gave heavier mushroom fruit bodies than cotton seed cak e.The use of supplementation increased the substrate temperature (Figurel and Figure 2) from the fourth day onwards to the ixteenth day. Bags with de-oiled soybean cakes showed a rise in temperature from 3 to 90C over room temperature and 3 to 50C over unsupplemented bag temperature. Cotton seed cake addition showed less temperature rise compared with similar doses of soybean cake. The utmost rise in temperature was between the fourth day and the ninth day. Table-3: Effect of different doses of cotton seed cake on fresh mushroom yield and dry matter of Pleurotus ostreatus var florida.Substrate used Biological Efficiency (%) % Dry matter content in 1st and 2nd flush Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 1% 90. 4 +18. 94 7. 3 10. 5 Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 2. 5% 100. 3 +31 . 97 8. 1 9. 82 Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 5. 0% 112. 0 +47. 36 7. 8 9. 49 Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 7. 5% 105. 3 8. 0 Wheat straw + cotton seed cake 10% 112. 3 +47. 7 9. 01 9. 0 9. 28 CDat5% DISCUSSION Alth ough commercial cultivation of oyster mushroom Pleurotus spp started very late compared to Agericus bisporus (1650 A. D. ), Lentinula edodes (1100 A. D. and Auricularia spp (600 A. D. ), it occupies the third place in the world among the cultivated mushrooms. Successful cultivation of oyster mushroom using cereal straw was reported in 1962 by Bano and Srivastava from India. Still, it is not widely cultivated due to inconsistent yields. The fresh mushroom yield or biological efficiency of a species is directly related to strain, substrate nutrition and growth conditions. Sustainable oyster mushroom production can be achieved by employing cultural practices which optimize and integrate nutrient management.Agricultural residues used for oyster mushroom farming provide most of the nutrients and vitamins for growth. Carbon is readily available from cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin from straw, but nitrogen occurs mostly in a bound form and is not available until it is enzymatically rel eased. Various workers have also reported that Pleurotus spp have the capability to fix atmospheric nitrogen (Rangaswamy et. al. 1975, Jandaik and Rangad 1977) but this has not been proved conclusively. In the cultivation of A. isporus the addition of protein rich supplements is a common practice, which indicates that either the compost is deficient in nitrogen or the bacterial proteins present in the compost are inadequate.Rinker (1989) found 37 and 42. 6% more total yield in P. ostreatus from supplementation with barley straw with brewer's grain and 17, 27, 65 and 118% more yield by addition of alfalfa hay at 5, 10, 20 and 40% (dry wt. basis). He also found that supplementation prior to pasteurization increased the total yield, but mushroom size was negatively affected with increased supplementation. In our studies we have not found any significant effect on mushroom size. Influence of supplementation is also species and strain-specific.Somycel 3200 reacted poorly to alfalfa meal and negatively to chicken manure, and Somycel 3001 reacted positively to rice bran and alfalfa meal at the time of filling (Visscher 1989). Upadhyay and Vijay (1989) also observed cotton seed meal as better supplement for P. fossulatus and rice bran for P. ostreatus. Supplementation is absolutely necessary for getting fructification is some strains of P. eryngii (Royse 1999, Upadhyay and Vijay 1991). With supplementation came a rise in substrate temperature, possibly due to faster metabolic activities riggered by extra nitrogen.Royse and Schisler (1986) also observed overheating (from 300C to 470C) in bags where Spawnmate was applied without benomyl treatment, and proposed that it could be due to the growth of competitor moulds. GurJar and Doshi (1995) did not find any effect on yield of P. cornucopiae with 5 and 7. 5% addition of soybean meal in wheat straw and assumed this could be due to a rise in temperature. We identified increases in the temperature of beds from 5 to 90C over room temperature. Therefore, supplements should be cautiously used, because excessive bed temperature (more than 350C) may kill the mycelium.OverstiJns (1995) observed an increase of 19% in mushrooms with the addition of only 0. 5% corn steep liquor and recorded a rise in temperature from 0. 3, 1. 4 and 2. 30C with the addition of only 0. 5, 1 and 2% corn steep liquor. Higher supplement doses gave even higher temperatures, which were harmful and attracted growth of Coprinus sp (Guna segaran and Graham 1987). In A. bisporus, the addition of formaldehyde-pretreated 1 and 2% cotton seed meal and soybean meal at the time of casing produced 20 and 30% higher yields respectively, but higher doses of supplement attracted a lot of contamination (Gupta and Vijay 1992).Supplementation has also been found to facilitate higher mushroom yield in other mushrooms such as Agrocybe aegerita and L. edodes (Zadrazil 1994, Jong 1989). Higher supplementation (3 to 4% w/w) of NPK in rice husk, melon husk and coconut fruit fibers did not give either mycelium growth or basidiocarp from the tubers of P. tuberregium (Isikhuemhen and Okhuoya 1998). Supplementation with de-oiled soybean and cotton seed cake not only gave higher biological efficiency but the fruit bodies were significantly heavier than in unsupplemented bags.

Plato’s and Cicero’s life and Political Ideas Essay

Between 429-347 BCE, were the period of Plato and his ocean of philosophical dispositions and carried the most deep-seated political, social and intellectual thoughts. His questions raised the consciousness of intellectuals, students and general people making them think every aspect of their life from new and fresh perspective. As said by Alfred North Whitehead, â€Å"All Western philosophy consists of footnotes to Plato. † (Garvey 7) Plato was a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, and naturally in his works there is a reflection of Socrates thoughts and ideologies. But while remembering, Plato we should not forget Cicero, 106-43 B. C. who was himself part of many of the political developments of his time. He was not only a philosopher but also an orator, lawyer and politician. He laid more importance to politics over philosophy. His philosophical works came about only in the period when he was forced to refrain himself from politics. Though he was neither considered as exceptional thinker nor we can see any originality in his works yet his thoughts on various aspects of philosophy exerted tremendous influence on many thinkers after many years to come. His popularity rose in 19th century. There is no comparison between Plato and Cicero as they were both of different ages and had their own distinct attributes, yet if we give deep thoughts into their philosophical works what we get is what we call slight deviations in their thoughts on Politics. Plato was born in Athens during 428-7 B. C. E but there is no certainty about this date because according to Diogenes Laertius, Plato was born in the same year when Pericles died. He was also considered to be six years younger than Socrates was and his death came when he passed the youthful years of his life-at the age of 84. If according to Apollodorus’ version, the death date of Plato is correct then his birth date should lie between 430 or 431 but Diogenes put his birth in 429. Diogenes further said that if Plato was the twenty years old at the time of Socrates murder in 399 then his year of birth should be 427. These years between 429-347 B. C. E is considered to be very appropriate, whereas, Cicero was born on 3rd January 106 BC in Arpinum, as Arpino today. It is a hill town situated 100 kilometres towards south of Rome. This small Italian got Roman citizenhsip in 188 B.  C. and began to speak Latin rather than their language Volscian before they were enfranchised by Romans. The assimilation of nearby Italian communities into Rome laid Cicero’s future as a Roman statesman, orator and writer. Though he had a great mastery over Latin rhetoric and composition but Cicero would never from him heart considered himself as a â€Å"Roman† and he was aware of this fact through out his life. During this period of Roman history, it was considered as cultured to able to speak both the Greek and Latin languages. Like many of his contemporaries, Cicero also got education in Greek rhetoricians, and their most influential teachers of their time was also Greek. His knowledge of Greek language enabled him to translate many of its theological concepts into Latin brining maximum number of common people into the world of Greek philosophical thoughts. He was so inclined towards the study of Greek culture and language that he would be called by the other boys as â€Å"Little Greek boy†, yet it is his obsession with the Greek language that made him tied to the traditional Roman elite. The family of Cicero belonged to the local class of nobles known as domi nobles, but without any tie with the Roman senatorial class. Cicero was only connected to Gaius Marius, the most popular person born in Arpinium. In 80 B. C. , he led the most popular faction during civil war against optimates of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Cicero’s father was a knight who would compensate his personal life by reading books. His mother was Helvia who was a very good housewife. (Clayton Online edition) Plato’s was also fortunate to be born in a noble family of Athens. He was the son of Aristone and his mother’s name was Perictone. He got his nickname from the wrestler’s broad shouldered physique. He was expected to follow the family’s tradition of politicians but when he witnessed that Athens entered into conflict with Sparta during Peloponnesian war, he aliented himself from politics and at the age of twenty, joined the School of Socrates. Socrates main ambition was to seek the truth and further explore on the issues like virtue and pity. He also critcised religious and political institutions but allegations began to be levid against him from all corners as he was charged for corrupting the mind of youths. Plato captured the nerves of the society at large and pened down his earnest views followed by Apology and Crito. When Socrates died, Plato opened his academy in a grove which was considered to be sacred to the demigod Academus, near Athens. The importance of Academy grew when Aristotle became its student. Astronomy, Mathematics, and Philosophy were the subjects taught in the Academy. Few years of his life, Plato spent in travelling gaining more knowledge in the other parts of Mediterranean whereas rest part of his life was spent in Athens until he died in 347 B. C.  Ralph Waldo Emerson, a great American essayist, philosopher, a poet and a leader of Transcendentalist movement of the nineteenth century evoked, â€Å"Plato is philosophy, and philosophy, Plato, at once the glory and the shame of mankind, since neither Saxon nor Roman have availed to add any idea to his categories. †Ã¢â‚¬â€(Emerson, Spiller, Ferguson Slater & Carr 23) Plato understood politics from the angle of justice and democracy. His aim was to give the rulers the main principle of what constituted real politics. For Plato, politics was an application of what metaphysics and ethics considered as true. His ideal world was something which was true, good and therefore virtuous. He gave to the world the best mouth piece of the study of human behavior and his relation with society. His â€Å"Republic† was his ideological stand point whereby he posed number of questions and pondered their answers in the light of various assumptions and dynamics of society. His main question comes from the light of what is good and bad in their world-Why should we be good and why in this cruel world, wicked are more happy and successful? To find out the answer to this question, Plato had to invite the whole community-the Polis. In other words , if you can find out the right direction to form polis which is healthy then the importance to individual happiness is ruled out. For Plato, justice is a base which could only be frutifully gained by bringing about balance in wisdom, courage and temperance. For Plato, even an ideal state can be self desructive. Plato posited the view that even ideal state where all have equal rights could also be destructive and it could be happen in turn by the very basic concept on which democracy stands. Though Republic, the Statesman, the Laws are three main political dialogues of Plato, and they developed their ideologies on the basis of what today is termed as conceptual analysis-in other words clarification of the basic principles on which politics stands and its importance. For Plato, this conceptual analysis was a preliminary stage for further critical evaluation of thought processes. According to Plato, making right decisions on the administration and making right choice between peace and war are the two most crucial initial steps of good politics. Such decisions could not be left into the hands of public only but by good orator. Cicero’s works included fifty speeches, around thousand letters to friends and associates, among them the several of his works included rhetorical theories and twelve out of them are on philosophical topics. These display great intellectual thoughts that deepen Cicero’s conviction that both the philosophy and rhetoric are independent to each other and are very important for human life and society. His works on philosophy stand witness to the rhetorical techniques and style of Roman oratory. The political philosophy of Plato was largely based on speculations about ideal state. Though he did conceptualize his points by imploring upon the city-states of Greece and events in current political scenario, yet his discussions evolved largely around what he and other intellectuals thought to be ideal states. The essence of his ideological state lied in the needs of the man on the individual level and on the whole and these needs of the man joined them together to work for the common goal. The members that make the society could be divided into different classes according to their particular work criteria. As according to Plato, in man, there are two different souls in the same way in the society also, there are three different classes: philosophers, warriors, and producers; one of which belongs to the rational souls and the rest two belong to the irrational souls and each class has its own particular role to fulfill. For e. g. philosophers run the state, warriors defend it and producers cultivate their skills to produce the materialistic goods needed by the state. On the other hand, much of the Cicero’s political thoughts followed Aristotle concept of ideal state. For Cicero, there were three main forms of government; monarchy, aristocracy, and the constitutional state, but he also believed that there is every scope of perversion in each form of government, which emerges from those who do not have regard for the public good. Not one form of government is perfectly good. Instead Cicero prescribed what is known as composite form of government with the principles of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. This form of government today is known as Common Wealth form of Government and Cicero termed as the Res Publica, literally known as â€Å"The People’s thing. His composite republic is based on the monarchical principle, also known as consuls; the aristocratic is likened to the Senate of Rome, which performs both the legislative and executive functions. The democratic principles are tribunes referred to as committees (comitia) in ancient Rome. Rather than revolutionary or politically visionary, Cicero was being considered more as a â€Å"political conservative† who was eager to preserve the Roman Republic against the designs of Julius Caesar, Mark Anthony, and Octavian whose aim was to make Rome into their own personal empire. But Cicero did not succeed in preventing Roman Republic from collapse and was murdered by the followers of Mark Anthony. (Marcus Cicero, Section 12). Cicero’s law was based on these two: â€Å"That true law was reason, That good is always good, that bad is always bad and in traditional Roman values. † (Simmons Online) He criticized all other form of constitutions for breaching the rights and interests of people and conveyed that political system should provide legal rights to every one equally but give electoral, legislative and judicial rights in accordance to their merit and wealth. Cicero’s first book On the Orator laid importance of Oratory in the politics of Rome. Oratory had been part of the Roman politics, and Cicero mainly superimposed its value. His discussions merely revolved around education basically history and poetry with composition of logic, philosophical theory and rhetorical techniques. As said by Stephen Whites’s, â€Å"Orator, clearly reflects Cicero’s own proficiencies, unites thorough knowledge of history and law with complete command of in a Romanized version of Plato’s philosopher-rulers†. (White online edition). Both Plato and Cicero wanted education to be based on philosophy to produce best statesman. While Plato’s more emphasis was on training on mathematical ground and transcendental metaphysics, Cicero wanted many practical programs of instructions designed to cultivate articulacy and civic debate. (White Online edition). His On the Republic is his much thought provoking dialects on leadership and politics. It was almost lost but its first third was recovered in 1820. On the Republic is a challenge of Plato’s Greek political theory based on utopian thoughts. He defined republic as â€Å"a peopl’e affair, â€Å"(res populi) and people as a community who have joined in to one consensus on their mutual interest. His other part constitutes his explanation on types of constitutions in classical Greek style and developed the data on the development of Roman institutions; whereas some of the sections which are either lost or preserved in very poor state have in short explanation of Hellenistic debates on the nature and rewards of justice and the discussions on education system of Rome. Yet another of his book On Laws is a sequel to a legal system. Contradicting Plato’s laws, he contended that Rome already had embodied itself much the ideals of law. On Laws truly appeared to be very important in the sense that it contains full account of natural law. Based entirely on Stoic ideas, Cicero contended that the whole concept of law is already a part of nature with an appropriate order, which could be codified in legislation for final tribunal in a court of law. After these writings, civil war erupted and he did not go further into this, but last of his books summed up his thinking on political grounds by bringing out the importance of morality in public life. In his On Duties which was his epistle to his son, he gave the routes to bestow on the proper code of conduct for Roman nobility emphasizing justice, benefaction and public service. His entire focus was on the men of high status and their way of dealing with the problems relating to personal ambitions and social obligations. Cicero too always stood on his profound trust on the noblest trait of human beings, which is their humanity and inculcate reasoning power to improve the lives of human beings. His thoughts on humanism are best skewed in his â€Å"On the Ends of Good and Evil†. The dialogue herein reflects on the question of what and where is the end of all human actions and the way you attain the happiness. Cicero agreed with Aristotle and saw that human beings are political or social animals. â€Å"But nature has given to mankind †¦ a compulsion to do good, and †¦ a desire to defend the well being of the community †¦. (Cicero & Rudd R I. 1). † But the most influential model book was The Republic by Plato. Cicero’s homage to the Republic was found in its expression in the section which was lost but also found its place in his concluding marks of the cosmos and the afterlife (The Dream of Scipio), which reflects the myth of err by the end of the Plato’s end book. Plato has been directly quoted and or reflected several times. Cicero’s Scipio states that, â€Å"Rather than invent a city for themselves as Plato did, he prefers to examine a real historical stance (The Roman Constitution) which comes closet to the ideal†. (Cicero, Rudd, & Powell xvi) But it was also mistake to espouse that, because Cicero had departed from Plato in certain way, his Republic is in very deep sense anti-platonic. It is further said that â€Å"Cicerio’s Scipio was enough of a Platonist to regard philosophy and astronomy as wise man’s true occupation, and to declare that one should take political offices only our of sense of duty or necessity, as Plato’s Guardian do. (I-26-29)( Cicero, Rudd, & Powell 17) There are many similarities between the Plato’s Republic and Cicero, de ra republic. Each formulated on the account of relationship between citizen and state. Both of them discussed on justice, both of them bestowed theory of constitution. Both of them also had mentioned discussion on education and a vision of an after life. Sharpely too suggested that â€Å"Cicero Republic in the sense, Plato’s turned inside out. † (Cicero& Zetzel 14) In the Republic by Plato, Socrates and his friends are trying to implore and analyze on what should be an ideal city but do not want to analyze the state in which he was living. Plato and Cicero were only mouthpieces in an arena of political thoughts in their respective periods whereas in Cicero’s De re publica, all the comments whether directly or indirectly emphasized on the organization of the state they ought to be living, which was Roman Republic in the final stages.